1.Why is DNA synthesis said to be “semiconservative”?
DNA is said to be semiconservative because
each new double-stranded DNA contains one old strand (template) and one newly-synthesized
complementary strand.
2. What role do DNA polymerase, DNA primase (a type of RNA polymerase),
helicase, topoisomerase, RNase H, and ligase play in DNA replication?
DNA po;ymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the covalent bond between the phosphate of one
nucleotide and the deoxyribose (sugar) of the next nucleotide. DNA primase attaches onto the 3’ end of the RNA primer.
Topoisomerase - unwinds DNA
Helicase – enzyme that breaks H-bonds
3. What is the difference between how the leading strand and lagging strand are
copied during DNA replication? Why do they have to be synthesized
differently in this fashion?
In leading strands DNA ligase connects the fragment at the start of the
new strand to the end of the new strand (in circular chromosomes). In lagging strands DNA ligase connects the Okazaki fragments to one another (covalently bonds the
phosphate in one nucleotide to the deoxyribose of the adjacent nucleotide).
4. What would happen if insufficient RNase H were produced by a cell? What if
insufficient ligase were produced by a cell?
5. What are four key differences between DNA polymerase and RNA
polymerase? (“they are difference molecules” doesn’t count as one!)
6. Compare and contrast codons and anticodons?
7. What is alternative splicing? Why is it necessary in eukaryotes?
8. During translation, what amino acid sequence would the following mRNA
segment be converted into: AUGGACAUUGAACCG?
9. How come there are only 20 amino acids when there are 64 different codons?
10. How come prokaryotes can both transcribe and translate a gene at the same
time, but eukaryotes cannot?
Saturday, March 27, 2010
Saturday, February 27, 2010
Assignment #3
1. What happens to radiant energy that reaches earth from the sun?
Radiant energy that reaches earth is called the greenhouse effect. The warmth from the sun heats the Earth’s surface, which then radiates the head energy absorbed outward. Most of this heat is radiated back into space, but some of the heat is retained in the atmosphere.
2. Name four greenhouse gasses in addition to water vapor
Methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and carbon dioxide.
3. How do water vapor and greenhouse gasses contribute to earth’s climate?
It works together to keep the Earth’s temperatures hospitable for life.
4. What are four sources of carbon dioxide?
Fossil fuels, coal, oil, natural gas.
5. Name three reservoirs for carbon dioxide in addition to the atmosphere
Living organisms, bodies of water, and soil.
6. What are fossil fuels? How are they made?
Fossil fuels are the buried remains of ancient plants and microorganisms that have been transformed by heat and pressure into coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are rich in carbon because plants remove carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
7. Where do plants get the carbon they need to build sugars?
Plants remove carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Consequently, plant structures are rich in organic carbon. Dead plant materials that are buried before they decompose, and thus before their carbon is released in the form of carbon dioxide, can produce fossil fuels.
8. Where do animals get the carbon they need to synthesize ATP?
Energy from the sunlight.
9. How has the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changed over the
past 100 years? What effect has this had on the planet’s overall climate?
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is much higher now then anytime in the past 400,000 years and that increased levels of carbon dioxide are correlated with increased temperatures. It is clear that when carbon dioxide levels increase, so do temperatures.
10. What is the difference in the chemical structure between ADP and ATP?
ADP is a nucleotide composed of adenine, a sugar, and two phosphate groups. Produced by the hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate bond of ATP. ATP is a nucleotide composed of adenine, the sugar ribose, and three phosphate groups that can be hydrolyzed to release energy.
11. How does ATP transfer energy to parts of a cell?
ATP acts like a coiled spring. ATP can be transferred to another molecule. Thus, ATP can energize other compounds through phosphorylation, which means that it transfers a phosphate to another molecule.
12. What is the difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobicrespiration?
Aerobic respiration is a cellular respiration that uses oxygen as the electron acceptor. Anaerobic respiration is a process of energy generation that uses molecules other than oxygen as electron acceptors.
13. Where do glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, chemiosmosis, and the light and
dark reactions of photosynthesis occur in cells?
It occurs in the Mitochondrion.
14. What are the final products of glycolysis? (don’t forget the energy carriers)
The final step is when an inner and outer membrane surrounds the mitochondria. The space between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space. The semifluid medium inside the mitochondrion is called the matrix.
15. What molecule enters the citric acid cycle? (hint: it’s not pyruvic acid)
ATP?
16. What are the final products of the citric acid cycle?
Removes electrons for use in producing ATP during the final step of cellular respiration. These electrons do not simply float around in a cell; this would damage the cell. Instead, they are carried by molecules called electron carriers.
17. Where does the electron transport chain get energy from to move H+ions
across the membrane into the inner membrane space?
Diffusion.
18. Why is oxygen needed for aerobic respiration?
When muscle cells run low on oxygen, they must get most of their ATP from glycolysis, the only step in the cellular respiration process that does not require oxygen. When glycolysis happens without aerobic respiration cells can run low on NAD+ because it is converted to NADH during glycolysis.
19. How is ATP generated via chemiosmosis? (be sure to explain the role of
ATP synthasein your answer)
During Chemiosis:ATP synthase (a transmembrane protein complex) caples movement of H+ ions down the protein
20. How many ATP are produced per NADH? Per FADH 2?
3 is produced per NADH. 2 is produced per FADH.
21. How many total ATP are produced from a single glucose molecule during
glycolysis followed by aerobic respiration?
2 ATP are interested early in the pathway and 2NADH and 4 ATP are generated for a net gain of 2NADH and 2ATP.
22. What part of proteins can be metabolized for energy?
Protein is broken down into component amino acids which are then used to synthesize new proteins. Most organisms can also break down proteins to supply energy. However this process only takes place when fats or carbohydrates are unavailable.
23. What part of lipids can be metabolized for energy?
The subunits of fats (glycerol and fatty acids) also go through the citric acid cycle and produce carbon dioxide, water and ATP. Most cells will break down fat only when carbohydrates supplies are depleted.
24. What is the purpose of fermentation? What would happen to cells if they
were somehow prevented from doing it?
Fermentation is to regenerate NAD+. No usable energy is produced by fermentation simply recyles NAD+. Fermentation cannot be used for very long because of its by products of this reaction leads to the build up of a compond called latic acid. Latic Acid is transported to the liver where calls use oxygen ro convert it back to pyruvic acid.
25. What are stomata? What type of cells make them up?
Stomata are adjustable microscopic pores found on the surface of leaves that allow for gas exchanges.
26. Where does the energy come from for the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis? Where in chloroplasts do these reactions occur?
Light dependant reactions of photosynthesis occur in the gamma via proteins embedded in the thylakoid membrane. During the light reactions of photosynthesis sunlight strikes chlorphyll molecules located in the thylakoid membrance exciting electrons that then move to a more higher energy level.
27. How do the energy carrier molecules synthesized during the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis compare to those synthesized during cellular
respiration?
The main function of cellular respiration is to convert the energy stored in chemical bonds od food into energy cells can use. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmposphere and use it to make sugars and other macromolecules by the process of photosynthesis. Through this process they release oxygen into the atmosphere.
28. Where in chloroplasts are glucose molecules synthesized? What process is
responsible for their synthesis?
Chloroplasts synthesize glucose molecules in the thylakoids, the large amount of membrane provides more surface area upon which some of the reactions of photosynthesis can occur. Light reactions and the Calvin Cycle are responsible for the synthesis.
29. Why is water necessary for photosynthesis? Why is carbon dioxide
necessary? Why is sunlight necessary?
With out the presence of sunlight we would not be able to perfomr the Calivin cycle. Light is transfered to the chloryphyll and becomes chemical energy. When sunlight strike the chloryphyll it becomes more excited and moves to a higher energy level. During the light reactions oxygen is produced when water is present.
30. How are rubisco and oxaloacetate similar?
Rubisco the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. A four-carbon molecule found in mitochondria that condenses with acetyl conenzyme A to form citrate in the first reaction of the citric acid cydle. Oxaloacetate must be constantly regenerated in order for the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain to continue.
31. What is transpiration?
Water that can move out of the plant through the stomatal opening.
32. Which types of plants are most vulnerable to photorespiration? Why?
Photorespiration is the closing of the stomal openings to prevent water loss, thus C3 is the most vulnerable.
33. Why are C 3plants better adapted to cool, shady environments while C4
plants are better adapted to hot, sunny environments?
Enzymes used in C4 photosynthesis are also more sensitive to cold temperatures then the enzymes of the calvin cycle.
Rising temperatures can reduce the rate of photosynthesis because on hot days plants close their stoma to reduce the loss of water. C4 photosynthesis carries a cost-C3 plants require 3ATP molecules to convert 1 molecule of carbon dioxide into sugar but C4 plants require 5 molecules of ATP. Thus C3 plants have an advantage in certain enviromental situations (cool and shady) and C4 plants in (hot and sunny)
34. Why is growth limited in CAM plants?
Growth is limited in CAM plants because the amount of carbon dioxide stored in acid during the night is limited.
35. How does deforestation contribute to global warming? Deforestration is the process that clears forests for farmers, loggingand expanding human settlements. Cutting down trees directly links to the increase of carbon dioxide within the atmosphere.
36. What role does the United States play in global warming? The United States produces close to 1/4 of the carbon dioxide emitted by fossil fuel burning, The per capita emissions rate of carbon dioxide for americans is TWICE that of the Japenese or Germans , three times that of the global average, four times that of Sweeden, and 20 times that of the average Indian.
Radiant energy that reaches earth is called the greenhouse effect. The warmth from the sun heats the Earth’s surface, which then radiates the head energy absorbed outward. Most of this heat is radiated back into space, but some of the heat is retained in the atmosphere.
2. Name four greenhouse gasses in addition to water vapor
Methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and carbon dioxide.
3. How do water vapor and greenhouse gasses contribute to earth’s climate?
It works together to keep the Earth’s temperatures hospitable for life.
4. What are four sources of carbon dioxide?
Fossil fuels, coal, oil, natural gas.
5. Name three reservoirs for carbon dioxide in addition to the atmosphere
Living organisms, bodies of water, and soil.
6. What are fossil fuels? How are they made?
Fossil fuels are the buried remains of ancient plants and microorganisms that have been transformed by heat and pressure into coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are rich in carbon because plants remove carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
7. Where do plants get the carbon they need to build sugars?
Plants remove carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Consequently, plant structures are rich in organic carbon. Dead plant materials that are buried before they decompose, and thus before their carbon is released in the form of carbon dioxide, can produce fossil fuels.
8. Where do animals get the carbon they need to synthesize ATP?
Energy from the sunlight.
9. How has the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changed over the
past 100 years? What effect has this had on the planet’s overall climate?
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is much higher now then anytime in the past 400,000 years and that increased levels of carbon dioxide are correlated with increased temperatures. It is clear that when carbon dioxide levels increase, so do temperatures.
10. What is the difference in the chemical structure between ADP and ATP?
ADP is a nucleotide composed of adenine, a sugar, and two phosphate groups. Produced by the hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate bond of ATP. ATP is a nucleotide composed of adenine, the sugar ribose, and three phosphate groups that can be hydrolyzed to release energy.
11. How does ATP transfer energy to parts of a cell?
ATP acts like a coiled spring. ATP can be transferred to another molecule. Thus, ATP can energize other compounds through phosphorylation, which means that it transfers a phosphate to another molecule.
12. What is the difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobicrespiration?
Aerobic respiration is a cellular respiration that uses oxygen as the electron acceptor. Anaerobic respiration is a process of energy generation that uses molecules other than oxygen as electron acceptors.
13. Where do glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, chemiosmosis, and the light and
dark reactions of photosynthesis occur in cells?
It occurs in the Mitochondrion.
14. What are the final products of glycolysis? (don’t forget the energy carriers)
The final step is when an inner and outer membrane surrounds the mitochondria. The space between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space. The semifluid medium inside the mitochondrion is called the matrix.
15. What molecule enters the citric acid cycle? (hint: it’s not pyruvic acid)
ATP?
16. What are the final products of the citric acid cycle?
Removes electrons for use in producing ATP during the final step of cellular respiration. These electrons do not simply float around in a cell; this would damage the cell. Instead, they are carried by molecules called electron carriers.
17. Where does the electron transport chain get energy from to move H+ions
across the membrane into the inner membrane space?
Diffusion.
18. Why is oxygen needed for aerobic respiration?
When muscle cells run low on oxygen, they must get most of their ATP from glycolysis, the only step in the cellular respiration process that does not require oxygen. When glycolysis happens without aerobic respiration cells can run low on NAD+ because it is converted to NADH during glycolysis.
19. How is ATP generated via chemiosmosis? (be sure to explain the role of
ATP synthasein your answer)
During Chemiosis:ATP synthase (a transmembrane protein complex) caples movement of H+ ions down the protein
20. How many ATP are produced per NADH? Per FADH 2?
3 is produced per NADH. 2 is produced per FADH.
21. How many total ATP are produced from a single glucose molecule during
glycolysis followed by aerobic respiration?
2 ATP are interested early in the pathway and 2NADH and 4 ATP are generated for a net gain of 2NADH and 2ATP.
22. What part of proteins can be metabolized for energy?
Protein is broken down into component amino acids which are then used to synthesize new proteins. Most organisms can also break down proteins to supply energy. However this process only takes place when fats or carbohydrates are unavailable.
23. What part of lipids can be metabolized for energy?
The subunits of fats (glycerol and fatty acids) also go through the citric acid cycle and produce carbon dioxide, water and ATP. Most cells will break down fat only when carbohydrates supplies are depleted.
24. What is the purpose of fermentation? What would happen to cells if they
were somehow prevented from doing it?
Fermentation is to regenerate NAD+. No usable energy is produced by fermentation simply recyles NAD+. Fermentation cannot be used for very long because of its by products of this reaction leads to the build up of a compond called latic acid. Latic Acid is transported to the liver where calls use oxygen ro convert it back to pyruvic acid.
25. What are stomata? What type of cells make them up?
Stomata are adjustable microscopic pores found on the surface of leaves that allow for gas exchanges.
26. Where does the energy come from for the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis? Where in chloroplasts do these reactions occur?
Light dependant reactions of photosynthesis occur in the gamma via proteins embedded in the thylakoid membrane. During the light reactions of photosynthesis sunlight strikes chlorphyll molecules located in the thylakoid membrance exciting electrons that then move to a more higher energy level.
27. How do the energy carrier molecules synthesized during the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis compare to those synthesized during cellular
respiration?
The main function of cellular respiration is to convert the energy stored in chemical bonds od food into energy cells can use. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmposphere and use it to make sugars and other macromolecules by the process of photosynthesis. Through this process they release oxygen into the atmosphere.
28. Where in chloroplasts are glucose molecules synthesized? What process is
responsible for their synthesis?
Chloroplasts synthesize glucose molecules in the thylakoids, the large amount of membrane provides more surface area upon which some of the reactions of photosynthesis can occur. Light reactions and the Calvin Cycle are responsible for the synthesis.
29. Why is water necessary for photosynthesis? Why is carbon dioxide
necessary? Why is sunlight necessary?
With out the presence of sunlight we would not be able to perfomr the Calivin cycle. Light is transfered to the chloryphyll and becomes chemical energy. When sunlight strike the chloryphyll it becomes more excited and moves to a higher energy level. During the light reactions oxygen is produced when water is present.
30. How are rubisco and oxaloacetate similar?
Rubisco the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. A four-carbon molecule found in mitochondria that condenses with acetyl conenzyme A to form citrate in the first reaction of the citric acid cydle. Oxaloacetate must be constantly regenerated in order for the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain to continue.
31. What is transpiration?
Water that can move out of the plant through the stomatal opening.
32. Which types of plants are most vulnerable to photorespiration? Why?
Photorespiration is the closing of the stomal openings to prevent water loss, thus C3 is the most vulnerable.
33. Why are C 3plants better adapted to cool, shady environments while C4
plants are better adapted to hot, sunny environments?
Enzymes used in C4 photosynthesis are also more sensitive to cold temperatures then the enzymes of the calvin cycle.
Rising temperatures can reduce the rate of photosynthesis because on hot days plants close their stoma to reduce the loss of water. C4 photosynthesis carries a cost-C3 plants require 3ATP molecules to convert 1 molecule of carbon dioxide into sugar but C4 plants require 5 molecules of ATP. Thus C3 plants have an advantage in certain enviromental situations (cool and shady) and C4 plants in (hot and sunny)
34. Why is growth limited in CAM plants?
Growth is limited in CAM plants because the amount of carbon dioxide stored in acid during the night is limited.
35. How does deforestation contribute to global warming? Deforestration is the process that clears forests for farmers, loggingand expanding human settlements. Cutting down trees directly links to the increase of carbon dioxide within the atmosphere.
36. What role does the United States play in global warming? The United States produces close to 1/4 of the carbon dioxide emitted by fossil fuel burning, The per capita emissions rate of carbon dioxide for americans is TWICE that of the Japenese or Germans , three times that of the global average, four times that of Sweeden, and 20 times that of the average Indian.
Sunday, February 7, 2010
Enzyme Quiz
The correct answer for each question is indicated by a [http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif] .
1 CORRECT Enzymes are
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) lipids.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] B) proteins.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] C) carbohydrates.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] D) nucleic acids.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] E) steroids.
2 CORRECT Which of the following binds to the active site of an enzyme?
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) water
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] B) product
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] C) substrate
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] D) any other enzyme
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] E) none of the above
3 CORRECT Which of the following correctly represents the mechanism of enzyme function?
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) S + P -> E-P -> E + P
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] B) E + P -> E-P -> E-S -> E + S
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] C) E + P -> E-S -> E-P -> E + P
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] D) E + S -> E-S -> E-P -> E + P
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] E) E + S -> E-P -> E-S -> E + S
4 CORRECT An enzyme can only bind one reactant at a time.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) True
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] B) False
5 INCORRECT An enzyme speeds up a chemical reaction in the cell, but can only be used once.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] A) True
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] B) False
1 CORRECT Enzymes are
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) lipids.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] B) proteins.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] C) carbohydrates.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] D) nucleic acids.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] E) steroids.
2 CORRECT Which of the following binds to the active site of an enzyme?
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) water
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] B) product
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] C) substrate
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] D) any other enzyme
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] E) none of the above
3 CORRECT Which of the following correctly represents the mechanism of enzyme function?
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) S + P -> E-P -> E + P
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] B) E + P -> E-P -> E-S -> E + S
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] C) E + P -> E-S -> E-P -> E + P
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] D) E + S -> E-S -> E-P -> E + P
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] E) E + S -> E-P -> E-S -> E + S
4 CORRECT An enzyme can only bind one reactant at a time.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] A) True
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] B) False
5 INCORRECT An enzyme speeds up a chemical reaction in the cell, but can only be used once.
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio_selected.gif] A) True
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/correct.gif]
[http://ewhighered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/styles/shared/radio.gif] B) False
Friday, February 5, 2010
Diseases associated with Obesity
There are many heath factors that come with being overweight and over the years obesity is on a national rise. One type of very serious disease linked to obesity is Type II diabetes. Our bodies, the pancreas, make insulin to regulate and digest the sugars in our systems. It is shown that the more overweight a person is, the harder it is for the cells in our bodies to absorb the insulin, leaving it for our bodies to absorb it into fat cells or use it as energy. Hypertension is high blood pressure. You can get high blood pressure from stress to the body such as a car accident or constant worrying or being obese. Many people who are overweight do tend to have hypertension. Normal or healthy blood pressure is 120/80. The more weight you have on your body the harder you and everything from the cells to organs inside you have to work. When our bodies are working we “cells” are circulating blood to the heart and causing our heart to contract. When we put more pressure, such as working out, stress and even FAT we cause our heart to work harder to put blood to vital parts of our body increasing the level of blood, which increases blood pressure. Most people who have hypertension are at greater risk for heart attack, and stroke for the obvious reasons. Atherosclerosis is a condition of buildup of fat around our arteries, and is affected by those who have hypertension, diabetes, and an overall unhealthy way of life. Having clogged arteries is something to not take lightly. These clogs can travel from anywhere to the brain or heart and leave you in a stroke, comma or possibly dead. Having a stroke can do major damage to your body. It puts more stress on your heart as well as your other organs. Being obese sets you up for death in all honesty. Our bodies are our temples and they need to be treated as if so.
Saturday, January 30, 2010
New Insights into allergy related-disorders in children
The sience article read described how researchers wondered how many infants who wheezed would go up to have allergies such as asthma. Researchers at the Norwegin University of Science and Technology said that fourty percent of 5,000 children had reported having allergies. This study was done in Sweeden and was compared to the United Kingdom. Scientists took a control group of those who had effectiveness against fatty acids, smoke, and indoor dampness. I find that this study is inconclusive simply because this is an issue with all children, of all race, and all location. Ifeel as though there would be better findings if researchers maximized their subjects and included in more areas other than sweeden.
Biochemisty Questions
1. What is the difference between an endergonic and exergonic reaction?
Endergonic releases energy. Endergonic consumes energy.
2. How many protons, electrons, and valence electrons does Na+ have? (the atomic number for sodium is 11.
Protons : 11 Electrons: 11 Valence electrons: -1
3. What is the difference between an ionic bond, a covalent bond, and a hydrogen bond? Which is the strongest? Weakest?
An Ionic bonds –attraction between two ions forming a salt. Covalent bonds – nuclei of two atoms are both strongly attracted to the electrons and share them.Hydrogen bonds - hydrogen atoms in a polar compound are attracted to ions or other polar compounds. H’s almost always share electrons unequally taking on a slight + charge. Bonds between H and negative ions or polar regions are called H-bonds
4. What are the four types of organic macromolecules and which monomers Link together to make up each?
Polysaccharides, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Polypeptides. Polysaccharides (starches) are chains of monosaccharides (sugars) - starches and sugars are collectively called carbohydrates. Lipids are chains of fatty acids. Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA) are chains of nucleotides. Polypeptides (proteins) are chains of amino acids
5. Which type of bond holds together the monomers that make up the four primary organic macromolecules?
6. Which type of bonds holds together two complementary strands of DNA?
Hydrogen bonds
7. Why do phospholipds form micelles in water?
Phospholipids are composed of a charged phosphoric acid and uncharged fatty acid chains. Therefore they have a charged head and an uncharged tail.
8. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?
Saturated fatty acid is a fatty acid whose carbon chain cannot absorb any more hydrogen atoms. Unsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid which some of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are joined by double or triple bonds.
9. Often times science fiction stories make reference to silicon-based life forms as opposed to carbon-based life. Why does this make sense as a plausible possibility for alien life?
10. What are the three differences between DNA and RNA?
1. Different sugar in backbone (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
2. RNA contains uracil instead of Thymine
3. RNA is single-stranded, DNA is double stranded (complementary strands are held together by H-bonds)
11. What are the five nitrogenous bases that form the eight nucleotides that make up RNA and DNA?
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil.
12. How do nucleotides fit together to form DNA?
Nuclei Acids are composed of eight types of nucleotides linked together into a long chain. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C, U), a sugar and a phosphate
13. What causes proteins to fold into their final shape?
Reactive groups cause regions of the protein to attract or repel one another, causing the protein to fold into its final shape
14. What is the difference between a protien's primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure?
Primary structure – linear amino acid sequence.
Secondary – Folds into helices and beta sheets.
Teritary – folding into its final 3D shape.
Quaternary – Folding into its final 3D shape (does not apply to all proteins)
15. What causes the structural shape of receptors to change?
Ligands are the generic name for molecules that specifically bind to the receptors causing receptor to undergo conformational change. These changes allow signals to be passed through for communication.
16. What would happen if an enzyme were absent from a cell?
It would delay the chemical reactions for bringing the molecules together.
17. What would happen if a cell had too much of a particular enzyme?
Increase in the enzyme concentration increases the activity of the enzyme up to the optimum value. There is no effect unless substrate concentration is altered.
18. Why are enzymes highly specific for their substrates and receptors highly specific for their ligands?
Substrates are the molecules bound by the enzyme. The enzymes active site specifically binds to them. Enzymes are not altered by the chemical reaction and therefore can act again and again to catalyze the reaction over and over.
19. Bases on its name, what do you think proteases do? (Hint: these are also called peptidases)
An enzyme that breaks down peptides into amino acids.
Endergonic releases energy. Endergonic consumes energy.
2. How many protons, electrons, and valence electrons does Na+ have? (the atomic number for sodium is 11.
Protons : 11 Electrons: 11 Valence electrons: -1
3. What is the difference between an ionic bond, a covalent bond, and a hydrogen bond? Which is the strongest? Weakest?
An Ionic bonds –attraction between two ions forming a salt. Covalent bonds – nuclei of two atoms are both strongly attracted to the electrons and share them.Hydrogen bonds - hydrogen atoms in a polar compound are attracted to ions or other polar compounds. H’s almost always share electrons unequally taking on a slight + charge. Bonds between H and negative ions or polar regions are called H-bonds
4. What are the four types of organic macromolecules and which monomers Link together to make up each?
Polysaccharides, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Polypeptides. Polysaccharides (starches) are chains of monosaccharides (sugars) - starches and sugars are collectively called carbohydrates. Lipids are chains of fatty acids. Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA) are chains of nucleotides. Polypeptides (proteins) are chains of amino acids
5. Which type of bond holds together the monomers that make up the four primary organic macromolecules?
6. Which type of bonds holds together two complementary strands of DNA?
Hydrogen bonds
7. Why do phospholipds form micelles in water?
Phospholipids are composed of a charged phosphoric acid and uncharged fatty acid chains. Therefore they have a charged head and an uncharged tail.
8. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?
Saturated fatty acid is a fatty acid whose carbon chain cannot absorb any more hydrogen atoms. Unsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid which some of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are joined by double or triple bonds.
9. Often times science fiction stories make reference to silicon-based life forms as opposed to carbon-based life. Why does this make sense as a plausible possibility for alien life?
10. What are the three differences between DNA and RNA?
1. Different sugar in backbone (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
2. RNA contains uracil instead of Thymine
3. RNA is single-stranded, DNA is double stranded (complementary strands are held together by H-bonds)
11. What are the five nitrogenous bases that form the eight nucleotides that make up RNA and DNA?
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil.
12. How do nucleotides fit together to form DNA?
Nuclei Acids are composed of eight types of nucleotides linked together into a long chain. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C, U), a sugar and a phosphate
13. What causes proteins to fold into their final shape?
Reactive groups cause regions of the protein to attract or repel one another, causing the protein to fold into its final shape
14. What is the difference between a protien's primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure?
Primary structure – linear amino acid sequence.
Secondary – Folds into helices and beta sheets.
Teritary – folding into its final 3D shape.
Quaternary – Folding into its final 3D shape (does not apply to all proteins)
15. What causes the structural shape of receptors to change?
Ligands are the generic name for molecules that specifically bind to the receptors causing receptor to undergo conformational change. These changes allow signals to be passed through for communication.
16. What would happen if an enzyme were absent from a cell?
It would delay the chemical reactions for bringing the molecules together.
17. What would happen if a cell had too much of a particular enzyme?
Increase in the enzyme concentration increases the activity of the enzyme up to the optimum value. There is no effect unless substrate concentration is altered.
18. Why are enzymes highly specific for their substrates and receptors highly specific for their ligands?
Substrates are the molecules bound by the enzyme. The enzymes active site specifically binds to them. Enzymes are not altered by the chemical reaction and therefore can act again and again to catalyze the reaction over and over.
19. Bases on its name, what do you think proteases do? (Hint: these are also called peptidases)
An enzyme that breaks down peptides into amino acids.
about me
Hi my name is Kayla Williams and I am a part time student as well as a full time employee at Ventura County Medical Center. I have been taking my pre-requisites for the past two years towards entrance into a Nursing Program. I’ve always loved helping others and the medical field is very intriguing to me. I’ve worked at Ventura County Medical Center for almost 5 years now, 3.5 years in the Neonatal Unit as a Student Aide, and a little over a year on the Med/Surg floor as a Nursing Assistant. I know that once I have my degree as well as my Nursing License I want to work in a Pediatric Unit. This is a class that is needed for me to apply to get into the Nursing Program. I am a student who has to try very hard. I know that I am smart, but school doesn’t come easy to me. I learn better hands on. I have to obtain a B in this class in order to apply as well. It will be difficult but I have determination. Ideally I want to get my Bachelors, but since I am fully supporting myself I plan on getting my RN at a JC, working for a few years and then putting myself back through school.